Participating the game – Watching the game:
Plato versus Aristoteles
NİLGÜN TOKER
The original definition of the concept of the game, goes back to the theories of mimesis of Plato and Aristotle. The concept of mimesis is imitation, representation of an action or an emotion both for Plato and Aristotle. Bu while it’s an instrument of education for Plato; it’s a mediation which will find its meaning in the activitiy of watching for Aristotle. Plato renders the game an instrument for the formation-process of citizens in accordance with the Project of ideal state. The game, in this sense, is an activity determined by the social and political order in Plato’s philosophy. It means that the game is not a free act but a determined process of education. Since it is an instrument, namely a determined process in the service of social and political order, Platonian theory of game takes place in the base of the manner, which the modern fascism and totalitarism defines the game. On the contrary, for Aristotle, the game is thought on the ground of the transformation (katharsis) to which the activity of representation lead in the minds of audiences. The aim of the representation whose meaning appears in the act of aesthetic judgement of audience, is to open and enlarge the minds of audiences to the other and different. So the game, for Aristotle, is a mediation to establish the dialogical public realm. It’s clear that Aristotle’s theory of game has important imlications for a democratic relation between game and watching.
A fusion of horizons: Play and sports
ŞEBNEM PALA
This paper is situated at the intersection of play and sports, and thus it aimed at exploring the ambit of play and sport in the context of some of their past and present prospects. Drawing upon Bakhtin’s concept of chronotope which marks the intrinsic connectedness of time and space, the paper proposes that play and sport, which can be both regarded as socio-cultural products and processes, possess a particular spatio-temporal axis of their own. Within these two continuous and interrelated zones of praxis, Homo ludens can be envisaged and understood hic et nunc through Gadamer’s concept of fusion of horizons.
Game, utopia and sport
MEHMET MİHRİ ÖZDOĞAN
Children’s game was a central object in the analytic observations of Freud, although he did not develop a systematic theory. Again and again Freud worked on children’s game from an analytical perspective. He saw it as a way of children’s digestion of the depressive reality of drives and of the external world. For him, the counterpart of children’s game was not seriousness, but the reality. His definition of children’s game can also be understood as a definition of utopia. Perhaps it is therefore that the principle work of Ernst Bloch, The Principle of Hope, is beginning by dealing with the psychoanalytic theory of the unconscious. To deal with the philosophy of Bloch from a psychoanalytical perspective can make the category of the unconscious fruitful, and this will lead us to a critical analysis of sports as a regressive utopia or a true one.
Main characteristics of physical education and sport policies in the Republican Turkey
YİĞİT AKIN
This paper explores the governmental policies towards sports and physical education during the Republican era. In the first period, Kemalist policy makers aimed at utilizing sports and physical education to improve the physical and mental health of the people, particularly children and adolescents. Furthermore, the physical training activities were designed as powerful tools of equipping the youth with the necessary physical and mental skills for military service and industrial development. Therefore, they can be handled as components of the early Republican social policy. Like other components of the social policy, however, sports and physical education included measures towards moral regulation and social control. Although there was a strong belief in the sports and physical education policies in the way of reaching the ultimate goals, these attempts of the governing circles could not be put into practice to any great extent. Both because of financial and infrastructural problems and the principal contradictions implicit in the policies, they could be applied only on a limited scale.
The following period of 1950s-1980s has been a transition period from a utilitarian physical culture to an implicitly commercial and industrial one. Although the militaristic understanding of physical education completely vanished in this period, most of other fundamental tenets of Kemalist sports policies continued to exist. In practice, however, football entirely dominated the physical culture field. Football for the first time went beyond big cities and spread to remotest parts of Anatolia.
From the 1980’s on, Turkish sports have undergone a rapid commercialization process and became a mass phenomenon. Size and social influence of sports (especially football) has grown dramatically. Physical education, on the other hand, has been impelled to the margins of the Turkish physical culture. In the absence of governmental policies toward physical health, body building and aerobic centers and recently special fitness clubs have mushroomed. With the eighties and nineties, under the influence of consumer society, the body became a vehicle for pleasure and self-fulfillment. This process has marked the climax of a gradual shift of the emphasis from national health to personal fulfillment and personal anxieties.
The following period of 1950s-1980s has been a transition period from a utilitarian physical culture to an implicitly commercial and industrial one. Although the militaristic understanding of physical education completely vanished in this period, most of other fundamental tenets of Kemalist sports policies continued to exist. In practice, however, football entirely dominated the physical culture field. Football for the first time went beyond big cities and spread to remotest parts of Anatolia.
From the 1980’s on, Turkish sports have undergone a rapid commercialization process and became a mass phenomenon. Size and social influence of sports (especially football) has grown dramatically. Physical education, on the other hand, has been impelled to the margins of the Turkish physical culture. In the absence of governmental policies toward physical health, body building and aerobic centers and recently special fitness clubs have mushroomed. With the eighties and nineties, under the influence of consumer society, the body became a vehicle for pleasure and self-fulfillment. This process has marked the climax of a gradual shift of the emphasis from national health to personal fulfillment and personal anxieties.
From Marxism to globalization: Sport sociology, 1970-2005
CEM EMRENCE
Sport has become a key site of popular culture in contemporary world with the advent of globalization and mass media networks. Accordingly, there is growing interest to understand the social, political and economic aspects of modern sport. This article gives an overview of the key intellectual debates in sport sociology in the last three decades to help scrutinize sport as part of a larger social inquiry. Special emphasis will be given to neo-Marxist aprroaches and globalization school both of which have come up with critical perspectives to understand structural and spatial inequalities on and off the sport field. Finally, I will juxtapose two perspectives to suggest a radical research project for future sport studies.
Football, public sphere and democracy
DORUK YURDESİN
Due to the huge economy and varying sizes of massive events produced through it, the global effect and social outcome of modern football is reshaped with each new day. With the help of publicity, the commercial and violent sides of the game started to have more effect on societies in 1960’s. Since then football has been analyzed by social sciences from different points of view. The reasons of the problems caused by the game; the consequences of globalism on football; the way fundamental social inequalities are reproduced are questioned along with the game’s role as a mediator in expressions of massive discontent and social solidarity established in societies.
Football has often been criticized for its usage as a tool of securing power by oppressive rulers. On the other hand, many historical examples show that the game’s reflexivity and the meaning it bears for the people reversed these expectations. In different times, be it an oppressive or democratic regimes, the cultural and economic ties the football clubs established with the community have passed beyond being symbolic, sometimes gaining oppositional attributes.
As one of the most widespread elements of popular culture, football, too, contains many contradictory elements within it, like democratic and anti-democratic, progressive and reactionary, liberating and oppressive. Furthermore, as the executive classes of football surrender more to the demands of those who have no interest in the game other than maximizing corporate incomes, the consequent developments give way to new fan organizations. These organizations, formed mostly in Europe, are critical about the gradual loss of cultural and traditional meaning of the game, and are yet to become oppositional powers at least within football: people are claiming their game.
As Habermas argued, transformation of cultural public spheres through interaction with the establishment has fundamental importance in the evolution of democratical thought in the West. Many cases exemplify that football fandom is something more than mere discharging action for masses; also a cultural activity, holding essential importance in millions’ lives. Can it be possible that football may create not only passive spectators of a popular entertainment but also critical consciousness among its participators?
Football has often been criticized for its usage as a tool of securing power by oppressive rulers. On the other hand, many historical examples show that the game’s reflexivity and the meaning it bears for the people reversed these expectations. In different times, be it an oppressive or democratic regimes, the cultural and economic ties the football clubs established with the community have passed beyond being symbolic, sometimes gaining oppositional attributes.
As one of the most widespread elements of popular culture, football, too, contains many contradictory elements within it, like democratic and anti-democratic, progressive and reactionary, liberating and oppressive. Furthermore, as the executive classes of football surrender more to the demands of those who have no interest in the game other than maximizing corporate incomes, the consequent developments give way to new fan organizations. These organizations, formed mostly in Europe, are critical about the gradual loss of cultural and traditional meaning of the game, and are yet to become oppositional powers at least within football: people are claiming their game.
As Habermas argued, transformation of cultural public spheres through interaction with the establishment has fundamental importance in the evolution of democratical thought in the West. Many cases exemplify that football fandom is something more than mere discharging action for masses; also a cultural activity, holding essential importance in millions’ lives. Can it be possible that football may create not only passive spectators of a popular entertainment but also critical consciousness among its participators?
Media and sports, or sports media
EMRE GÖKALP
This study deals with the conjunction of two of the most important social and cultural phenomenon of our times – sports and media. Firstly, growing political, economic and symbolic significance of sports, particularly the most popular one, football is examined. Then, the article provides a brief sociological overview of the developing relationship between media and sport. Industrialization and commercialization of sports/football is discussed with specific emphasis on spectacular growth of the media. This discussion especially tries to demonstrate how these institutions became mutually dependent or why television and commercial spectator sports are inseparable. It is emphasized that the role of the media is vital in generating the huge public interest that makes commercial sports, especially football such a profitable business. This paper also critically analyses the sports media to identify its ideological role in the reproduction and naturalization of dominant discourses.
From Harpastum to television football: Considerations on the relationship between sport, industrialization and law
KADİR GÜRTEN
Under historical circumstances when sport is not socially differentiated, it is impossible to talk about the law of sports, which offers an in-depth analysis of the relationship between sport and law in all its aspects. It is more appropriate to talk about the relationship between pastimes and the law for the earlier era. The law has played a part in the arrangement of pastimes in all times. However, this part was of little significance in the past.
The loose relationship between pastime and the law first began to get transformed in what Elias called the “sportization process” in the late 18th century. This process involved the transition from pastimes with loosely applied codes to the sports with strictly observed rules, through emotionalization, the lowering of the level of violence and exercising more efficient external social control. Besides all these regulatory practices toward restraining violence, the domain of law enlarged in parallel with the effect of codification of modernity/capitalism in all spheres of life. In this “new” life, the realm of sport became differentiated, more significant and “specialized, thereby paving the way for the development of “the law of sport” as a separate discipline.
The more apparent aspect of the effect of industrialization on sports is certainly commercialization in this sphere. The second of this process is the emergence of the mentality geared to design the sport activities just as industrial activities. This systematic structure in conjunction with the excess of detailed legal problems and regulations provided the ground for the idea that the law of sport must be a sui generis discipline. This new industrialized state of sports brought quite a few fields of specialization alongside with a complex structure requiring professionalism and significant accumulation of knowledge. Sports, which are now assessed solely in economic terms, face new problems everyday. As a result, the legal regulations concerning sports has been increasing, and sports become overlegalized.
The loose relationship between pastime and the law first began to get transformed in what Elias called the “sportization process” in the late 18th century. This process involved the transition from pastimes with loosely applied codes to the sports with strictly observed rules, through emotionalization, the lowering of the level of violence and exercising more efficient external social control. Besides all these regulatory practices toward restraining violence, the domain of law enlarged in parallel with the effect of codification of modernity/capitalism in all spheres of life. In this “new” life, the realm of sport became differentiated, more significant and “specialized, thereby paving the way for the development of “the law of sport” as a separate discipline.
The more apparent aspect of the effect of industrialization on sports is certainly commercialization in this sphere. The second of this process is the emergence of the mentality geared to design the sport activities just as industrial activities. This systematic structure in conjunction with the excess of detailed legal problems and regulations provided the ground for the idea that the law of sport must be a sui generis discipline. This new industrialized state of sports brought quite a few fields of specialization alongside with a complex structure requiring professionalism and significant accumulation of knowledge. Sports, which are now assessed solely in economic terms, face new problems everyday. As a result, the legal regulations concerning sports has been increasing, and sports become overlegalized.
The last twenty-five years of footballas a legitimation agent in Turkey
AHMET TALİMCİLER
The aim of this study is to analyze the football, apart being a sport event, which became a social phenomenon by forming and legitimizing some power relations and its impacts on our lives. 1980, as in many other realms, was a milestone for the transformation of Turkish football game. 1980’s has been a period in which the governments gave football a new role to fill in the space vacuumed by politics. In this period, football is also used as an agent to unite the newly introduced neo-liberal politics with the masses of people by creating a fiction of reality (with the contribution of media-government party-football authorities). The reasons that gave a new role for football game lied under the new consuming culture and politics introduced to society by Özal governments in Turkey. The importance of emphasis on professionalism in the commodification process of football can be better understood by the autonomy given only to football game, except other sports in 1988, a time in which the impact of neo-liberal politics led the replacement of state by the markets.
The media would become the leading force in shaping the new role of football as well as sustaining its familiarization with the people. The establishment of private television channels in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s would increase the domination of media. The media has a very crucial role in transferring of values formed by football. Media reproduce the ideological approaches, that are in contrast with the universal standards, by normalizing them, or normalize while reproducing them. In this context, the power relations maintain its existence through the language of media. The institutionalization of football media and its productions targeting FB, GS and BJK (biggest football teams) would exist in this period. Football lost its characteristics as a game played in the field and it is re-identified with new roles through a reality of fiction created after the 90 minutes. The rapid increase in number of football authorities talking and commenting endlessly on TV channels is followed by the establishment of specialized newspapers on football. Football has become an important element of popular culture and has begun to create its own language. Specialized football newspapers, football sections in newspapers, football programs on TV channels has become effective in developing, as well as creating new patterns about the teams in the minds of the fans.
The new order based on earning and spending easy money in these years led the transformation of football and football clubs under the domination of money and a new group of people, in order to create their own reality, wanted to act within the management of football. In the context of relations between sport and the process of political legitimation, the economic and social transformation after 1980 continued together with football and newly moneyed people of this period began to act in the administration of football clubs. These people used football as the sign of a social status and aimed to become untouchable and privileged by creating power relations through the football club. The participation of mafia in football sector by getting into close relations with football clubs, football association, referees, trainers and football players is an outcome of this period.
The new order based on earning and spending easy money in these years led the transformation of football and football clubs under the domination of money and a new group of people, in order to create their own reality, wanted to act within the management of football. In the context of relations between sport and the process of political legitimation, the economic and social transformation after 1980 continued together with football and newly moneyed people of this period began to act in the administration of football clubs. These people used football as the sign of a social status and aimed to become untouchable and privileged by creating power relations through the football club. The participation of mafia in football sector by getting into close relations with football clubs, football association, referees, trainers and football players is an outcome of this period.
Gender and sports: A general evaluation
CANAN KOCA – NEFİSE BULGU
Gender is a major social and theoretical category that along with social class, race, age, ethnicity and others, must be incorporated into all theoretically based social analyses of sport. The centrality of body and physical performance to athletic experience makes sport a particularly powerful setting for the construction and confirmation of gender ideologies and organized sport is clearly a powerful cultural arena for the perpetuation of the ideology of male superiority and dominance. Within this importance, a primary goal of this paper is to bring to light some of the issues related to gender analysis of sport. We wanted to provide a coherent research strategy which can offer practical guidance for those dealing with gender issues or, at a theoretical level, which can advance our understanding of the role played by gender in competitive and recreative sport. Since very little data exist in relation to women’s and men’s sporting experinces in Turkey, there is great benefit to look at the contemporary situation and analyse several factors which may influence and motivate women and men to participate in sport setting. In particular, in this paper we focused on gender analysis of sport in four key areas: women’s body and femininity; sexuality; masculinity and hegemonic masculinity; and feminist sport studies.
“The cool conduct”: A new erain the Transatlantic relations
AYKUT ÇELEBİ
The aim of this paper is to discuss the present problems of the transatlantic relations, i.e. between the USA and the European Union. The paper analyses the imperial understanding of the American neo-conservatives regarding the foreign policy and the problems with the EU arising from this position. The American Revolution was based on the idea of the conquest of the space. The USA actually aims at extending this crucial idea to the globe to ensure their external security. The current controversy between the USA and the European Union can be explained through this point of view. The American author Robert Kagan has analysed the reasons of the current controversy in his book “Of Power and Paradise” which has been celebrated as the political manifesto of the American neo-conservatism. According to him the Europeans lack a basic understanding of the current situation in the world and they are not able to intervene in the conflicts in the new world order. He has formulated his thesis scantily as follows: The Americans came from Mars, the Europeans from Venus.
There were three different reactions on Kagan’s book from the European side: The first opinion stresses the differences of Europe to the United States and is called as Eurogaullism. The second opinion, which is presented by the French philosopher Étienne Balibar, claims that the EU has the function of a translator in the new world order and the term of Europe serves as a borderline concept. The third view concentrates on the crucial preferences of the United States and Europe after the Cold War and tries to establish the possibilities of a new beginning in the transatlantic relationship. These three European views has been analysed in this paper regarding the main thesis of Kagan’s book.
There were three different reactions on Kagan’s book from the European side: The first opinion stresses the differences of Europe to the United States and is called as Eurogaullism. The second opinion, which is presented by the French philosopher Étienne Balibar, claims that the EU has the function of a translator in the new world order and the term of Europe serves as a borderline concept. The third view concentrates on the crucial preferences of the United States and Europe after the Cold War and tries to establish the possibilities of a new beginning in the transatlantic relationship. These three European views has been analysed in this paper regarding the main thesis of Kagan’s book.
Development, international division of labour and critical realism: A methodological discussion
ALİ MURAT ÖZDEMİR - GAMZE Y. ÖZDEMİR
This study aims to examine the methodological issues/approaches in the conceptualisation of international division of labour. Deductive method, its premises and its main hypothesis are examined in order to develop a critical standpoint and then, the causal explanatory method is examined as an alternative method. The causal explanatory method operates with the stratified and transformational ontology of critical realism and requires that explanation is to be substituted for deduction, prediction, solution, determination and calculation as the objective of science. This study argues that international division of labour can only be conceptualised with the causal explanatory method given that this method leads the emphasis of investigation to switch from the domains of the empirical and actual to the domain of the deep and to the mechanism that govern these events. The conceptualisation of international division of labour requires an investigation switched from the consequences, that is, from the outcomes or results of some particular human action, to the conditions that make that action possible.
